ИДЕНТИЧНОСТЬ В СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯХ


ИДЕНТИЧНОСТЬ В СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯХ
Identity in Contemporary Linguistic Studies

Владимир Иванович Озюменко
ozyumenko-vi@rudn.university
Российский университет дружбы народов (РУДН)
(Москва, Россия)

Анна Алексеевна Горностаева
anngornostaeva@yandex.ru
Московский государственный лингвистический университет
(Москва, Россия)

Анна Степановна Борисова
borissova-as@rudn.university
Российский университет дружбы народов (РУДН)
(Москва, Россия)

Vladimir Ozyumenko
ozyumenko-vi@rudn.university
RUDN University
(Moscow Russia)

Anna Gornostaeva
anngornostaeva@yandex.ru
Moscow State Linguistic University
(Moscow Russia)

Anna Borissova
borissova-as@rudn.university
RUDN University
(Moscow Russia)

РЕЗЮМЕ
Статья представляет собой обзор научных работ современных ученых, посвященных этнокультурной идентичности и ее проявлению в языке и коммуникации. Традиционно данное понятие являлось объектом изучения философии, психологии, социологии и культурологии. В настоящее время оно заслуженно привлекает широкое внимание лингвистов, что не случайно, так как язык представляет собой наиболее существенный признак идентичности. В работе рассматриваются параметры определения этнокультурной идентичности ее структурные компоненты, среди которых выделяются аксиологический, коммуникативный и эмоциональный. Прослеживается, как данные компоненты идентичности закрепляются в языке и проявляются в речи носителей русского и английского языков. Обзор проведен на материале работ Л.И. Богдановой, А. Вежбицкой, А. Гладковой, В.В. Дементьева, Анны А. Зализняк, В.И. Карасика, Т.В. Лариной, А.Д. Шмелева, В.И. Шаховского и др.
Ключевые слова: этнокультурная идентичность, менталитет, культурные ценности, коммуникативные ценности, личность, язык

ABSTRACT
Abstract. The paper is a review of the recent studies carried out by scholars in the field of ethno-cultural identity and its manifestation in communication. Traditionally this term has been explored in philosophy, psychology, sociology and pedagogy Now it has started to attract the attention of linguists since language is the most essential component of identity. The paper considers the parameters for determining ethno-cultural identity and its structural components, amongst which axiological, communicative and emotional ones are most prominent. The paper shows how identity is embedded in language and reveals itself in the speech of native speakers of Russian and English. The review is based on the works of Bogdanova, Dementiev, Gladkova, Karasik, Larina, Shakhovsky, Shmelev, Wierzbicka, Zaliznyak, and others.

Key words: ethno-cultural identity, worldview, cultural and communicative values, personality, language.

Термин «идентичность» в этнокультурном аспекте стал употребляться относительно недавно. Традиционно в российской науке использовался термин «этническое самосознание», что подразумевало осознание личностью себя как представителя определенного этноса. На современном этапе, в эпоху глобализации и стремительного развития межкультурных связей, появилась необходимость более широкого понимания этого понятия и его глубокого и всестороннего анализа.
Изучением этнокультурной идентичности активно занимаются такие науки и сферы деятельности, как философия, психология, культурология, этносоциология, образование и т.д., каждая из которых имеет свой объект и ракурс исследования. Если философский подход концентрируется на социально-психологическом содержании на фоне исторического контекста (Лурье 1994; Мамардашвили, Пятигорский 1997), то, например, педагогика занимается проблемой формирования патриотизма и обеспечения гармоничного межэтнического общения (Громова 2012). Современная научная парадигма языкознания, основанная на антропоцентрическом подходе к языку, поставила человека в центр лингвистических исследований как личность языковую, коммуникативную, эмоциональную. Это вывело гуманитарные направления в целом и лингвистические в частности на новый уровень развития, взаимно обогащая их новыми знаниями и данными. Этничность выражается в образе жизни, ценностной и эмоциональной системах, в моделях поведения и стилях коммуникации. Все эти аспекты этничности находят отражение и проявление в языке и его функционировании. Язык дает объективные факты, которые подтверждают его взаимосвязь с культурой как на уровне языковой системы, так и на уровне узуса. В данной статье мы остановимся на таких исследовательских направлениях, как культурная семантика, этнограмматика и коммуникативная этностилистика, которые дают убедительные свидетельства того, что взаимосвязь языка и культуры носит системный характер.
С точки зрения философии, этнокультурная идентичность является сложным социально-психологическим феноменом, содержание которого составляет как осознание индивидом общности с локальной группой на основе разделяемой культуры, так и осознание группой своего единства на тех же основаниях, психологическое переживание этой общности, а также индивидуальные и коллективные формы ее манифестации. Используя известную метафору, в которой идентичность уподобляется русской матрешке (Herrmann et al. 2004), О.А. Леонтович отмечает: “Многослойность личностной идентичности, базирующаяся на сложном сочетании психофизиологических, социальных, национально-культурных и языковых различий, возрастает по мере включения человека в более крупные культурно-языковые сообщества» (Леонтович 2014: 253). Содержание этнокультурной идентичности определяется рядом разноплановых компонентов, среди которых выделяются когнитивно-психологические, чувственно-инстинктивные, рациональные и ментальные.
Любой носитель того или иного языка представляет собой языковую личность (а англоязычной литературе используется термин – linguistic identity), которая определяется как «личность, выраженная в языке (текстах) и через язык, личность, реконструированная в основных своих чертах на базе языковых средств». (СЭСРЯ). Данное понятие связано с изучением языковой картины мира, понимаемой как «исторически сложившаяся в обыденном сознании данного языкового коллектива и отраженная в языке совокупность представлений о мире, определенный способ концептуализации действительности» (Зализняк https://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/gumanitarnye_nauki/lingvistika/yazikovaya_kartina_mira.html). Эта совокупность представлений о мире, заключенных в значении разных слов и выражений, складывается в единую систему взглядов и предписаний, которая навязывается в качестве обязательной всем носителям языка (Зализняк, Левонтина, Шмелев 2005: 9). Языковая картина мира строится в основном на данных лексикологии, поскольку лексика больше, чем грамматика, связана с творческими возможностями человека, в то время, как грамматика «навязывается» системой языка (Богданова 2018б: 846). Изучение языковой картины мира является одним из способов постижения этнической идентичности.
В условиях общения языковая личность рассматривается как коммуникативная. В.И. Карасик определяет ее как «обобщенный образ носителя культурно-языковых и коммуникативно-деятельностных ценностей, знаний, установок и поведенческих реакций» (Карасик 2002: 26) и предлагает выделять три плана коммуникативной личности – ценностный, познавательный (когнитивный) и поведенческий (Там же).
Помимо коммутативной личности, исследователи говорят о необходимости выделения эмоционально-коммуникативной личности, поскольку эмоции являются «центром личности человека, в том числе центральным компонентом его коммуникативной деятельности» (Шаховский 2018: 69). По мнению В.И. Шаховского, термин «языковая личность» является неполным без эмоционально-экологической составляющей; кроме того, компонент «языковая» является, с его точки зрения, ошибочным, так как «ограничивает понимание данного термина знаниями о системе языка лишь с речевой потенцией» (Шаховский 2018: 71-72).
Не претендуя на рассмотрение всех составляющих матрешки, с которой сравнивается идентичность, в данной обзорной статье мы остановимся на ее основных компонентах, которые находят свое отражение в языке и формируются на основе корреляций «человек – культура», «человек – коммуникация», «человек – эмоции», т.е. на (1) когнитивно-аксиологическом, (2) коммуникативном и (3) эмоциональном. При этом отметим, что их выделение является условным, поскольку ценностный компонент определяет характеристики коммуникативной идентичности, которые в свою очередь проявляются, в том числе, и в эмоциональной сфере.
Закрепление языковой картины мира в семантике слов, убедительно показано в исследованиях представителей Московской семантической школы (см. Апресян 2005) и разработчиков и последователей Теории Естественного Семантического Метаязыка (см. Goddard, Wierzbicka 2014, Goddard 2018 a,b, Gladkova, Larina 2018a,b и др.). Исследования в области культурной семантики показали, что практически в каждом слове содержится культурный компонент, который фиксирует особый взгляд на мир носителей данного языка (Гладкова 2010; Зализняк, Левонтина, Шмелев 2005, 2012; Зализняк 2013 и др.). Отмечаются несовпадения таких, на первый взгляд, эквивалентных слов, как друг и friend в русском и английском языках’(Gladkova 2013: 323); честь и honor в русском и польском (Bogdanova 2017: 737); beautiful, bonito, красивый в русском, испанском и английском (Gladkova, Romero-Trillo 2014) и др. То же касается и коннотативных значений слов. Сравним некоторые примеры из русского и английского языков: иностранный (нейтральная коннотация) – foreign (негативная коннотация, ср.: чужой, чуждый, непонятный), агрессивный (негативная коннотация) – aggressive (нейтральная), индивидуалист (негативная коннотация) – individualist (нейтральная). Если в американской культуре такие характеристики человека, как ambitious (амбициозный) , aggressive (агрессивный), имеют скорее положительную коннотацию, так как они связаны с такой коммуникативной ценностью, как ассертивность – напористость, уверенность в себе, инициативность, то в русском социуме, где, напротив, традиционно ценится скромность, слова, содержащие высокую самооценку содержат отрицательные оценку (Bogdanova 2018b: 862).
Приведенные выше примеры говорят о том, что переводные словари фиксируют лишь приблизительное семантическое соответствие слов, что делает необходимым обращение к толковым словарям для более полного понимания семантики той или иной лексемы. Что касается коннотации, то, как справедливо отмечает Л.И. Богданова, словарные дефиниции часто не проясняют вопрос об оценке и содержании определяемого понятия (Богданова 2017: 729), «пометы в словарях, хотя и служат определенным сигналом оценки, но не являются точным и последовательным ее отражением» (Там же: 736). При этом отсутствие пометы не всегда говорит о том, что оценка нейтральная.
Для познания языковой картина мира того или иного народа особое значение имеет знание ключевых слов, которые дают ключ к ее пониманию (см. Goddard, Wierzbicka 1995, Wierzbicka 1997 и др.). При этом, как отмечает А.Д. Шмелев, речь не идет о понимании культуры во всей ее целостности, речь должна идти о представлениях о мире, свойственных носителям языка и культуры и воспринимаемых ими как нечто самоочевидное (Шмелев 2012: 17). А. Вежбицкая выделяет такие слова в руcской, польской, немецкой и японской культурах. Среди слов русской культуры называются, в частности, слова душа, тоска, судьба, для которых трудно найти полные лексические эквиваленты в других языках, например, в английском (Wierzbicka 1997), в то же время в английском языке есть слово privacy, являющееся концептуальной и лексической лакуной в русском языке (Wierzbicka 2006, Ларина 2009). Среди других слов, отражающих русскую языковую картину мира, исследователи культурной семантики отмечают слова общение, отношение, гости, дружба, любовь, сочувствие, терпимость, пошлость и др. (см. Зализняк, Левонтина, Шмелев 2005, 2012).
Грамматика, хотя и в меньшей степени, но также принимает участие в репрезентации культурно значимых концептов. Рассмотрение грамматики в этнокультурном ракурсе позволило выделить новое исследовательское направление – этнограмматику. Его задача заключается в реконструкции специфики культуры на основе анализа грамматических явлений и в выделении способов кодирования культурно-специфического семантического содержания в грамматике языка (Козлова 2018: 874). Основателем данного исследовательского направления по праву считается А. Вежбицкая, которая в своих работах последовательно отмечает, что каждый язык располагает своей собственной уникальной системой значений, закодированных в грамматике (Вежбицкая 1999: 46). На примере императивных, возвратных и переходных конструкций в различных языках она показывает, что в своих грамматиках (как и в словарях) языки кодируют различные конфигурации одних и тех же смыслов и утверждает, что наиболее распространенные конфигурации представляют значения, особенно важные для концептуализации мира (Вежбицкая 1999: 75). В российской лингвистике идеи А. Вежбицкой нашли развитие в работах Е.В. Падучевой (1996/2010), Л.А. Козловой (2009, 2018), Богдановой (2017, 2018 a,b) и других исследователей.
Этнокультурный подход к рассмотрению грамматических категорий и явлений позволяет выявить этнокультурные факторы, которые могли лежать в основе их формирования Так, например, Л.А. Козлова (2018) демонстрирует, как деятельностный характер англоязычной культуры влияет на выбор залоговых форм. Значимость этнокультурного фактора становится особенно очевидной при сопоставлении функционирования залоговых форм в английском и русском языках. По мнению Л.А. Козловой, развитие английского языка как языка науки, требующего точного, ясного и компактного изложения мысли, способствовало тенденции к номинативности, поскольку именно существительное служит для осуществления категоризации всего многообразия предметов окружающего нас мира, для номинации новых открываемых человеком явлений и для наименования продуктов его труда (Козлова 2009: 90). Напротив, значимость эмоционального начала в русском этническом характере лежит в основе того, что русский язык, по сравнению с английским, обладает большим количеством глаголов и, прежде всего не глаголов действия, а глаголов эмоционального состояния, которые по причине сдержанности англосаксонского этноса отсутствуют в английском языке (сердиться – быть сердитым, радоваться – быть радостным) (Вежбицкая 1999, Козлова 2009). В.И. Озюменко показывает обусловленность культурой английских модальных глаголов и особенностей их функционирования (Озюменко 2015). И.И. Милославский выдвигает идею о применении к рассмотрению русского языка такого параметра культурных различий, как контекст, на основе которого выделяются высоко контекстуальные культуры и низко контекстуальные культуры (Милославский 2019). Через рассмотрение вопроса о высокой и низкой контекстуальности применительно к русскому языку он анализирует многозначность русских слов и грамматических форм, а также те условия, в которых достигается или не достигается однозначное их понимание.
Среди культурно-специфичных слов исследователи называют слова, обозначающие в том числе и коммуникативные ценности культуры. Под ними понимаются «культурные ценности, которые оказывают решающее влияние на коммуникативное поведение, предопределяют его правила и нормы, формируют стиль коммуникации» (Ларина 2017: 68). Они играют определяющую роль в выборе коммуникативных стратегий и соответствующих языковых средств, что определяет в итоге особенности коммуникативного поведения и формирует этнокультурную коммуникативную личность со своим этнокультурным стилем коммуникации (см. Ларина 2009, 2013). В русской культуре среди таких слов – общение, дружба, сочувствие, взаимность (см., например, Гладкова 2010; Зализняк, Левонтина, Шмелев 2005, 2012). Как показывают результаты проведенных исследований, русские ценят прямоту, открытость и информативность больше, чем такт (Дементьев 2018, Ларина 2009, Wierzbicka 2002, 2011); разговор по душам, в котором можно обнажить душу больше, чем small-talk (Gladkova 2013, Дементьев 2019), открытое проявление чувств и эмоций больше, чем стратегическую эмотивность (Wierzbicka 2002, Gladkova 2013, Зализняк 2013, Ларина 2009, 2015 и др. ).
Коммуникативное поведение во многом определяется типом культуры и ее социальными параметрами – вертикальной и горизонтальной дистанцией, разнящимися в разных культурах, а также важностью зоны личной автономии. При сопоставлении таких культур, как русская, греческая, израильская, англо-саксонская, выявлены следующие закономерности: представители культур с относительно небольшой горизонтальной дистанцией более общительны, ценят солидарность, соучастие и более свободно участвуют в таких речевых актах, как просьба, совет, приглашение, критика (Blum-Kulka, House, Kasper 1989; Sifianou 1992); представители культур, для которых характерна бόльшая горизонтальная дистанция, считают вторжение в зону личной автономии недопустимым и рассматривают данные речевые действия как «угрожающие лицу» (Wierzbicka 2006, Larina 2015: 202). Вертикальная дистанция также находит свое отражение в языке. Например, в русском языке, помимо обращения на Вы, широко представлены глаголы, выражающие иерархию: «насмехаться над кем-либо», «трепетать перед кем-либо», «благоговеть перед кем-либо» (Богданова 2018б).
Важным параметром классификации культур, объясняющим многие особеннoсти языка и дискурса являются индивидуализм и коллективизм (Hofstede 1991). Кладя в основу личность и особенности ее позиционирования в обществе, исследователи предлагают называть индивидуалистические и коллективистские культуры Я-культуры и Мы-культуры, что позволяет устранить идеологические коннотации. Для представителей данных типов культур характерны различные типы социопсихологической идентичности – Я-идентичность и Мы-идентичность, соответственно (см. Ларина, Озюменко 2016; Larina, Ozyumenko, Kurteš 2017). Представители Мы-культуры ощущают себя частью группы, стараются не выделяться и не отдаляться от коллектива, в то время, как в Я-культуре ценятся автономность, индивидуальность. Эти различия особенно ярко видны при сопоставлении западных и иных культур, например, английской и русской. Несмотря на то, что в последние два-три десятилетия русская культура заметно смещается в сторону индивидуализма, что проявляется как в социальных отношениях, так и в ценностях, являющихся составной частью культуры (Larina, Mustajoki, Protassova 2017), русский язык по-прежнему дает нам много свидетельств закрепления в нем мы-идентичности русских. Так, например, в русском языке доля «мы» и «вы», в сравнении с английским языком, выше, чем доля «я». Исследователи приводят следующие примеры: Мы с другом. – My friend and I; Мы знакомы? – Do I know you?; Увидимся – See you, в которых видно, что в русской культуре «я» и другой – «ты/он» – это часто «мы», в английской же культуре человек своей индивидуальности не теряет и «я» в «мы» не превращается (см. Ларина, Озюменко 2016: 62).
Осознание человеком своего места среди себе подобных – важный этап в формировании личности и мировоззрения. Поскольку человек социален, логично предположить, что он нуждается в общении с другими, в совете, компании. Однако значимость этих факторов во многом зависит не только от психотипа личности, но и от типа культуры, к который принадлежит данный индивид. Важное значение здесь играют, как уже отмечалось, коммуникативные ценности. Эти ценности должны рассматриваться не только как компонент культуры и духовная доминанта личности, но и как объект восприятия, понимания, постижения и осмысления. Эффективное общение «не может быть обеспечено, если коммуниканты не освоили оценочно-ценностный потенциал языковых единиц, используемых во взаимодействии друг с другом» (Богданова 2017: 730). Даже самые базовые понятия, важные для всех людей, вне зависимости от культурной принадлежности, могут осознаваться по-разному. Так, например, не являются универсальными понятия вежливости, уважения, солидарности, искренности, интимности (см., например, Дементьев 2018, Ларина 2009, Sifianou 1992, Watts 2000 и др.).
Внимание к этнокультурной специфике коммуникации, изучением которой сейчас активно занимаются как российские, так и зарубежные лингвисты и лингвокультурологи, дало множество свидетельств того, что этнокультурная идентичность проявляется через речь, через способы использования языка в различных дискурсах и жанрах (см., например, Богданова 2018а, Горностаева 2018, Дементьев 2019, Ларина 2009, 2013, 2019, Леонтович 2014, Hryniewicz & Dewaele 2014, Zappettini 2014, Oishi 2014 и многие др.). Необходимость объяснения и систематизации выявленных различий подтолкнула исследователей к описанию этнокультурных стилей коммуникации (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey 1990, House 2006, Ларина 2007, 2009), что заложило основы нового исследовательского направления – коммуникативной этностилистики.
Поскольку в коммуникации выделяются языковой и поведенческий аспекты, этнокультурный стиль коммуникации, или коммуникативный этностиль, определяется как “исторически сложившийся, предопределяемый культурой и закрепленный традицией тип коммуникативного поведения народа, проявляющийся в выборе и предпочтительности определенных стратегий и средств коммуникации (вербальных и невербальных), используемых в процессе межличностного взаимодействия» (Ларина 2009: 196). В основе его описания лежат разноплановые параметры, связанные с социокультурными, аксиологическими, социолингвистическими, психолингвистическими, лингвистическими и др. характеристиками (как количественными, так и качественными), которые позволяют выделить доминантные черты стиля коммуникации, характерного для представителей той или ной лингвокультуры (подробно см. Ларина 2009).
Данный подход к анализу и систематизации этнокультурных особенностей коммуникации убедительно доказывает, что каждый индивид, являясь отдельной личностью и обладающий своей индивидуальной идентичностью, в то же время является представителем своей этнокультурной группы и демонстрирует черты этнокультурной идентичности. В наибольшей степени они проявляются при сопоставлении различных этнических культур. Так, сопоставительные исследования наиболее конвенциональных дискурсивных практик англичан и русских позволили определить русский стиль коммуникации как более прямой, импозитивный, эмоциональный, в большей степени ориентированный на содержание, чем на форму, на статус, а не личность; для английского стиля коммуникации, напротив, характерны косвенность, недопустимость оказания прямого давления на собеседника, эмоциональная сдержанность, ориентированность на форму высказывания и на личность собеседника (Ларина 2009). Подобная стилевая вариативность не случайна, если вспомнить, что представители русской культуры ценят близость и искренность, что делает их в коммуникации более доступными и прямолинейными, в то время как важнейшей коммуникативной ценностью представителей дистантных англосаксонских культур является privacy – зона личной неприкосновенности, которая и определяет важнейшие черты английского стиля коммуникации и дискурса в целом (см. Ларина, Озюменко 2017).
Рассматривая эмоциональную составляющую языковой личности, В.И. Шаховский утверждает, что любая языковая личность фактически является коммуникативной личностью, а так как коммуникация невозможна без участия эмоциональных переживаний темы, контента и отбора языковых/стилистических средств в процессе общения, языковая личность, как правило, всегда является эмоциональной коммуникативной личностью (Там же), что подтверждают многочисленные исследования в области коммуникации и эмотиологии (см, например, Шаховский 2015; Alba-Juez & Larina 2018, Mackenzie & Alba-Juez 2019 и др.)
Мы полностью разделяем данную точку зрения, поскольку рефлективные процессы, связанные с самоидентификацией личности, невозможны без эмоциональной составляющей. Так как каждый язык образует, по словам А. Вежбицкой, свою «семантическую вселенную», то эмоции, передаваемые тем или иным языком и присущие той или иной культуре, уникальны (Вежбицкая 1999, Wierzbicka 1999). Эмоции важны для всех культур и народов, но каждая культура имеет свою оценку, продолжительность, интенсивность их переживания и свои способы выражения (Богданова 2018б). Есть эмоции, более характерные для какой-то одной культуры и менее характерные для другой. Например, в русской культуре тоска – более длительное и основательное чувство, чем радость (радость, как правило, кратковременна). Помимо существительного тоска, в русском языке есть грусть и печаль. Глаголы, связанные с данными эмоциями, как правило, выражают активное действие: печалиться, горевать, тосковать, унывать, хандрить и т д. Как уже отмечалось, в отличие от русского языка, в английском отсутствуют лексемы, передающие все оттенки этих эмоциональных состояний, как и соответствующие им глаголы (Ср.: грустить – to be sad).
Замечено, что такие универсальные понятия, как «смех» и «слезы», «счастье» и «боль» также имеют культурную специфику (см. Wierzbicka 1999, 2014). Слово «боль» не может быть переведено на все языки со стопроцентным сохранением смысла, хотя большинство языков содержат словарную единицу, обозначающую «ощущение чего-то нехорошего в теле» (Wierzbicka 2014: 156). Как отмечает А. Вежбицкая, такая разница может иметь религиозную подоплеку, как, например, suffering – «страдание», восходящее корнями к христианской религии, и “dukkha” – «страдание» в переводе с санскрита, по смыслу приближающееся к словам, называющим эмоции на пути к нирване в буддизме – «беспокойство», «волнение», «нетерпение» (Wierzbicka 2014: 162-164).
Важно отметить, что само прилагательное «эмоциональный» имеет разные коннотации в разных культурах. Если в русской лингвокультуре оно называет положительное качество, свидетельствующее об открытости и искренности, «эмоциональный человек» – это прямой, открытый для общения человек, то в английской культуре “being emotional” часто свидетельствует об утрате самоконтроля, нарушении норм поведения и оценивается отрицательно (см. Wierzbicka 1999: 19). Данный языковой факт можно рассматривать как свидетельство того, что в структуре русской этнокультурной идентичности присутствует компонент «эмоциональная открытость», в структуре английской – «эмоциональная сдержанность», что находит проявление и в стилях коммуникации (см. Ларина 2015).
Как показал проведенный нами краткий обзор лингвистических исследований, когнитивная, коммуникативная и эмоциональная составляющие этнокультурной идентичности зафиксированы как в системе языка, так и в его употреблении. Этот факт подтверждает мнение о том, что в рамках лингвокультурологического подхода человек одновременно выступает как совокупность нескольких субъектов – как субъект культуры, субъект языка и субъект коммуникации (см. Красных 2007). Являясь носителем определённой культуры и говоря на определенном языке, который эту культуру фиксирует и хранит, он формирует лингвокультурную идентичность (Герман 2009, Красных 2007), системное изучение которой позволяет проследить взаимосвязь между языком, культурой, менталитетом и коммуникацией.
Человек Говорящий не может рассматриваться вне его культурной и лингвокультурной принадлежности. Взгляд на язык через этнокультурный ракурс представляется весьма перспективным, поскольку он способен дать объяснение многим явлениям в общей проблеме соотношения языка и мышления, а также способствовать изучению конкретных свойств менталитетов, определяющих типы поведения. Он открывает новые горизонты для междисциплинарных исследований, которые на основе анализа языка и полученных языковых фактов могут дать интересные результаты для каждой из смежных областей знаний.

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Для цитирования: Озюменко В.И., Горностаева А.А., Борисова А.С. Идентичность в современных лингвистических исследованиях // Cuadernos de Rusística Española, 15 (2019), 87 – 99.

ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИЙ ДИСКУРС И ИРОНИЯ: КОГНИТИВНЫЙ АСПЕКТ

А.А. Горностаева (Москва, Россия)
Московский государственный лингвистический университет
anngornostaeva@yandex.ru

ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИЙ ДИСКУРС И ИРОНИЯ: КОГНИТИВНЫЙ АСПЕКТ
Аннотация. Статья посвящена политическому дискурсу, который является предметом изучения ряда наук: психологии, социологии, лингвопрагматики, лингвостилистики. С точки зрения когнитивной лингвистики и теории критического дискурс анализа, язык политики формирует общественное сознание и, в конечном счете создает реальность. В статье рассматривается использование в политическом дискурсе такого приема, как ирония, для достижения говорящим своих целей и обеспечения максимального воздействия на аудиторию.
Ключевые слова: политика, дискурс, ирония, убеждение, манипулирование, общество.

Введение. Напряженная политическая ситуация в современном мире волнует многих. В последнее время появился ряд работ, посвященных политическому дискурсу и анализу различных его аспектов. Изучение политического дискурса имеет не только научные цели, но также способствует развитию плодотворной межкультурной коммуникации и предотвращению конфликтов. В данной статье анализируются примеры высказываний английских и американских политических деятелей, в которых использованы такие виды речевого воздействия на аудиторию, как убеждение и манипулирование. Для обеспечения максимального эффекта говорящие прибегают к различным экспрессивным средствам и стилистическим приемам, среди которых достойное место занимает ирония.
Ирония в политическом дискурсе выполняет различные функции – от агрессии и нападения на оппонента до оптимизации коммуникации и стирания интерперсональных границ.
Методология. Основной целью политического дискурса является достижение и удержание власти, как замечают сторонники критического дискурс анализа [Van Dijk 2009, Weiss, Wodak 2007, Fairclough 1995, 1996]. Эта цель достигается за счет таких стратегий, как убеждение и манипулирование [Озюменко 2017]. Эти стратегии сосуществуют и распадаются на ряд более мелких стратегий, список которых остается открытым: критика, нападение, защита, вежливое общение, ироническое общение и т.д.
Ирония как разноплановое явление рассматривается исследователями в разных аспектах. Выделяют ситуативную иронию, космическую иронию, иронию судьбы [Hutcheon 2005]. Иронию в коммуникации расценивают как соглашение между коммуникантами, основанное на общем понимании [Chambers 1990]; мнение говорящего, выражающее его отношение к ситуации [Yus 2018]. Авторы указывают на обманчивый характер иронии [Giora 2001] и ее эмоциональность.
Политический дискурс как способ воздействия на сознание. Политический дискурс является центральным понятием политической лингвистики – науки, призванной изучать воздействие на массовое сознание языковых средств и приемов. Лингвистический анализ языка политики – это, по сути, выявление способов использования языковых знаков для достижения определенных политических целей. В современной лингвистике значительное место занимает критический анализ политического дискурса, который направлен на изучение способов, с помощью которых социальная власть осуществляет свое господство в обществе. В центре внимания специалистов – языковые способы поддержания неравенства и сопротивления ему. Особое внимание ученые (Т. ван Дейк, Р. Водак, Н. Фэрклаф и др.) уделяют социальному, гендерному и этническому неравенству, злоупотреблению властью в различных сферах общественной жизни.
Общественное предназначение политического дискурса состоит в том, чтобы внушить адресатам, то есть аудитории, необходимость политически правильных, с точки зрения говорящего, действий и/или оценок. Иначе говоря, задача политического дискурса — не описать, а побудить к действию. Эффективность политического дискурса можно определить выполнением этой задачи. Борьба за власть и за доверие слушателей предопределяет функции политического дискурса и способы их реализации. Лингвисты выделяют следующие основные функции: интеграция и дифференциация групповых агентов политики; агональность и гармонизация отношений участников политического процесса; акциональная функция (в политике «говорить» значит «делать»); функция интерпретации (создание «языковой реальности» поля политики); контролирующая и регулятивная функции [Шейгал 2000].
В связи с тем, что, существуют два основных вида речевого воздействия – открытое (убеждение) и скрытое (манипуляция), исследователи придерживаются точки зрения о разделении двух гиперстратегий – убеждения и манипуляции, которые осуществляются путем воздействия на сознание, поведение и эмоции адресата с помощью разнообразных лингвистических речевых средств [Озюменко 2017: 206].
Ирония как инструмент убеждения и манипулирования. Ирония как категория дискурса имеет разные проявления – как высказывание; как речевой акт; как речевой жанр [Горностаева 2013]. Иронический смысл передается различными языковыми средствами, такими как метафора, гипербола, литота, сравнение, языковая игра и др. Ирония существует только в контексте и является продуктом совместной деятельности говорящего и адресата, воспринимающего и интерпретирующего иронию. Адекватное понимание иронии зависит от взаимоотношений между автором и адресатом, их культурного уровня, экстралингвистической ситуации и других факторов.
Умение использовать иронию в политическом диалоге – неотъемлемое качество истинного лидера. Анализ речей английских и американских политиков показал, что наиболее эффективно воздействуют на аудиторию именно те ораторы, которые часто прибегают к юмору, иронии, сарказму. Самоирония помогает предотвратить возможную критику или парировать нападки оппонентов, обезоруживая их. Искусные ораторы используют иронию, юмор, шутки, чтобы дискредитировать своих политических противников, а также чтобы избежать обсуждения нежелательных тем: “Politicians use jokes as a strategy aiming to embarrass their opponents in the eyes of other politicians. They joke to avoid discussions of pressing issues” [Fialkova, Yelenevskaya 2013: 218]. Напротив, государственные деятели, воздерживающиеся в своих речах от юмора и соблюдающие строгую официальность стиля, по нашим наблюдениям, менее популярны в обществе и имеют на него меньшее влияние.
Естественно, что у каждой политической языковой личности вербальные установки специфичны, кроме того, необходимо учитывать культурно-исторический контекст. Для того, чтобы понимать иронию и юмор в политическом дискурсе, адресат высказывания должен быть знаком с политической ситуацией, причинами разногласий и конфликтов, которые высмеиваются или осуждаются, а также с целями конкурирующих политических сил: “…in order to fully appreciate the meaning and significance of political humour one has to be familiar with the relevant political culture, the nature of disagreements and conflicts that are derided or condemned, and the goals of competing and struggling political forces” [Fialkova, Yelenevskaya 2013: 216].
Примеры и комментарии. Высказывания государственных деятелей и деятелей культуры на политические темы нередко представляют собой критику, направленную на определенный объект. Ирония делает эту критику завуалированной, но не менее очевидной. Так, в примере (1) американский актер Джимми Фэллон использует ироническое сравнение:
(1) During a speech yesterday, Hillary Clinton said she still doesn’t know if she’s running for president in 2016. You know, just like I still ‘don’t know’ if I’ll have a beer on St. Patrick’s Day. (Во время вчерашней речи Хиллари Клинтон сказала, что не знает, будет ли участвовать в президентской гонке в 2016 году. Это примерно как про меня сказать, что я пока не знаю, буду ли пить пиво в день Святого Патрика). (Ирония в данном случае подчеркивает неискренность Хиллари Клинтон, которая вводит в заблуждение своих потенциальных избирателей, скрывая свои планы).
Далее Джимми Фэллон добавляет:
(2) Hillary Clinton said she wants to travel this year, and won’t make any announcements about her plans to run for president until 2015. When asked where she’ll travel, she said, ‘New Hampshire, Iowa, and maybe spend a few months in Florida.’ (Хиллари Клинтон сказала, что она собирается путешествовать и до 2015 года не будет делать никаких заявлений относительно своих планов баллотироваться на пост президента. Когда ее спросили, где она будет путешествовать, она ответила: Нью-Гэмпшир, Айова и, возможно, несколько месяцев во Флориде) [http://politicalhumor.about.com/od/hillaryclinton/fl/Hillary-Clinton-Jokes.htm]. (Вторая фраза поясняет первую, используя иронический механизм двусмысленности. Подтекст таков: госпожа Клинтон посещает вышеперечисленные штаты с целью заручиться поддержкой избирателей).
Следующий пример (3) иллюстрирует иронию парадокса, которая часто выполняет развлекательную функцию и направлена на то, чтобы повеселить аудиторию, вызвать смех. Например, британский актер и комментатор Дэвид Митчелл, говоря о налогах, указывает на нелогичность системы налогообложения:
(3) The more conscience you have, the more you pay, the better person you are. Normally people tax things they want to discourage: nicotine, alcohol… What we do is discourage people from being nice by taxing it [YouTube. David Mitchell on tax avoidance, 20.02.2015]. (Чем больше у вас совести, тем больше вы платите, тем более благородным человеком вы являетесь. Но обычно налогом облагаются вещи, которые не поощряются: никотин, алкоголь… Происходит вот что: благородство облагается налогом, и люди не хотят быть хорошими). (Помимо развлекательной составляющей, ирония в данном высказывании содержит и серьезную подоплеку – критику общественного устройства, а вывод, сделанный ироничным говорящим, логичен по форме, но абсурден по смыслу).
К иронии парадокса прибегает и кандидат в президенты США от одной из самых эксцентричных политических партий Гэри Джонсон:
(4) I think the majority of people in this country are libertarians, but they don’t know about it [YouTube. The Party Crashers: Meet the Libertarians in the 2016 Election. 1. 06. 2016]. (Я думаю, большинство граждан США принадлежат к Либертарианской партии, просто они не знают об этом). (Политик в данном случае использует ироническую гиперболу the majority of people in this country для того, чтобы поднять рейтинг и привлечь внимание к своей позиции, так как на самом деле приверженцев Либертарианской партии не слишком много).
Ирония как способ сохранить лицо содержится в высказывании Барака Обамы, комментирующего неожиданную для многих победу Трампа на выборах:
(5) I said to the American people, regardless which side you are on in the election, regardless whether your candidate won or lost, the sun would come up in the morning. And that’s one bit of prognosticating that actually came true. The sun is up [YouTube Watch President Obama speak on Trump presidential victory, 9.11.2016]. (Я сказал американскому народу: кого бы вы ни поддерживали на выборах, какой бы из кандидатов ни выиграл, утром все равно взойдет солнце. И этот прогноз оказался верным – солнце действительно взошло). (Ироническое открытие очевидного – the sun would come up in the morning – в данном контексте маскирует смущение и призвано утешить и самого говорящего, и его сторонников. На самом деле Обама удивлен и разочарован результатами выборов, так как он поддерживал другого кандидата).
Ироническая игра слов (6) добавляет оттенок пикантности в политический дискурс и акцентирует точку зрения говорящего:
(6) Paying the correct amount of tax is an incredibly broad grey area… there are fifty shades of grey [YouTube. David Mitchell on tax avoidance, 20.02.2015]. (Как заплатить налоги правильно – это такой туманный вопрос… Здесь пятьдесят оттенков серого). («Пятьдесят оттенков серого» – название известного эротического романа, где главные герои – люди с садо-мазохистскими наклонностями. Дэвид Митчелл намеренно использует это словосочетание, иронически уподобляя систему налогообложения садо-мазохистским отношениям. Использование игры слов распространяется на значения слова grey – серый; туманный, неясный).
Выводы. Воздействуя на общественное сознание путем убеждения аудитории и манипулирования ее мнением, политические деятели осуществляют свои цели. Для достижения лучшего эффекта в процессе коммуникации, используются различные языковые средства. Использование иронии в политическом дискурсе – важное лингвистическое явление, получившее особенное распространение в современной ситуации. Ирония действует в соответствии со стратегиями политического дискурса и помогает говорящему реализовать свою коммуникативную интенцию.
Литература
Горностаева. А.А. Ирония как компонент английского стиля коммуникации. Монография. М.: ИПЦ «Маска», 2013. — 240 с.
Озюменко В.И. Медийный дискурс в ситуации информационной войны: от манипуляции — к агрессии // Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Лингвистика. 2017. Т. 21. № 1. С. 203—220.
Шейгал Е.И. Театральность политического дискурса // Единицы языка и их функционирование: межвуз. сб. науч. тр. – Саратов: Изд-во СГАП, 2000. Вып. 6.
Chambers R. “Irony and the canon”, Profession 90 (MLA): P. 18–24, 1990.
Fairclough N. Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold. 1995.
Fairclough N. Language and power. Longman 1996. – 135 p.
Fialkova L., Yelenevskaya M. In Search of the Self: Reconciling the Past and the present in Immigrants’ Experience. Tartu ELM Scholarly Press, 2013. 282 p.
Giora R. Irony and its discontent // Utrecht publications in general and comparative literature. Vol. 35. John Benjamins publishing company, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2001. P. 165-185.
Hutcheon L. Irony’s Edge. The Theory and Politics of Irony/L.Hutcheon. – New York: Routledge, 2005. – 248 p.
Van Dijk T. A. Society and discourse: how social contexts influence text and talk. Cambridge University Press, 2009. – 299 p.
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A.A. Gornostaeva
Moscow State Linguistic University
anngornostaeva@yandex.ru

POLITICAL DISCOURSE AND IRONY: COGNITIVE ASPECT
Abstract. The article is devoted to political discourse, which is the centre of attention of many modern scholars and is the focus point of a number of branches – psychology, sociology, language pragmatics, stylistics etc. According to cognitive linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), political discourse forms social opinion and constructs political reality. The paper examines irony as a device used in political discourse by a speaker to reach his/her aims and produce the best effect on the audience.
Key words: Politics, discourse, irony, persuasion, manipulation, society.

Для цитирования: Горностаева А.А. Политический дискурс и ирония: когнитивный аспект // Когнитивные исследования языка. Выпуск XXXVII. Материалы IX Международного конгресса по когнитивной лингвистике, 16-18 мая 2019 г. Н.Новгород. С. 700-706.

Irony and Communicative Values in Political Discourse: Intercultural and Interpersonal Communication

Anna Gornostaeva
Moscow State Linguistic University

Abstract

In the time of globalization and developing intercultural communication it is necessary not only to master a foreign language but to acquire cultural and communicative skills. Recently the item of developing intercultural competence has acquired a particular importance. It is recognized that successful intercultural communication is impossible without the knowledge of background information, which includes communicative and cultural values, history and traditions. Being an essential part of a language culture, humour and irony pose vast challenges for research. This article concentrates on irony, as a communicative value of certain cultures. It is noted that irony is an integral part of the English communicative culture [1] and understanding irony and humour in a foreign language ensures a fruitful dialogue between cultures [2]. This phenomenon has national and cultural peculiarities, which should be taken into consideration while understanding and interpreting the implied sense. On the contrary, the inability to penetrate into the disguised meaning of an ironic utterance may cause communicative failures, misunderstanding and even conflicts. The aim of the study is to determine the links between cultural and communicative values and mechanisms of irony in the British and American culture and to find common and different trends in irony usage. The hypothesis is: irony is a reflection of culture and forms the picture of the world of an individual, belonging to a certain culture, and of a nation as a whole; irony is used to express and strengthen the national identity. The knowledge of ironic mechanisms is important to promote understanding between different cultures. In discourse (in political discourse, in particular) irony performs different functions – from mockery and attack to self-defense and discharging tension. The appropriate ironic mechanism and the ironic mask, chosen by the speaker, corresponds to his/her communicative intention and contributes to creating a better effect on the interlocutor and the audience. The material, used for the analysis, is represented by the recent speeches of British and American political and cultural figures.
The results of the study can be applied in the development of discourse theory as well as teaching and learning intercultural communication.

Key words: irony, cultural values, communicative values, communication, discourse.


1. Introduction

In the modern globalized world connections between nations are becoming stronger and questions of intercultural communication require primary attention. It has become obvious that mastering a foreign language is not sufficient to ensure successful dialogue and understanding, but it is also important to have enough knowledge of cultural and communicative values, which form an integral part of the picture of the world, present in people’s mind. These values are reflected in the language, its vocabulary and phraseology and find manifestation in the way expressive means and stylistic devices are used in discourse. This article focuses on political discourse for a number of reasons.
1. Recently the attention of researchers has been attracted to political communication, as a bright example of intercultural and interpersonal discourse, its mechanisms and language means. These phenomena are analyzed from different angles and through various approaches, including political, cultural and linguistic ones. So, the interest to political discourse is high.
2. Contemporary political discourse reflects the current situation in society and shows the recent changes in people’s taste and desires.
3. Political and cultural figures demonstrate examples of speech, which has an appeal not only to the interlocutor, but to a third party – the audience, for the sake of who everything is said and done. That is why political discourse is usually bright, expressive and convincing.
The central figures in political communication are the participants and the strategies of persuasion and manipulation. The aim of political discourse is gaining and holding power, the instrument to achieve this aim is language. One of the expressive means is irony, whose functions range from attack and mockery to self-defense and entertainment and rely on communicative context, background and the type of relations between the interlocutors. It should be noted, that irony, as a category of discourse, is a product of collaboration between the participants of the conversation: one part is responsible for producing irony, the other – for understanding it correctly. In the process of intercultural and interpersonal communication it is necessary to absorb and understand national irony, be able to interpret it in the right way and react appropriately. The inability to understand ironic utterances of a foreign interlocutor can cause communicative failures, lead to growing tension and eventually discourage the speakers. On the contrary, background knowledge about the partner’s national humour peculiarities will contribute to better understanding and result in efficient productive communication.
The hypothesis is the following: the use and frequency of irony depends on cultural and communicative values the speakers have. The material, chosen to illustrate the idea, proves the point and poses vast challenges for further analysis.


2. Methodology

Political discourse is currently interpreted as a social phenomenon, while politics is associated with power and force: “Politics is the realm of the decision, of action in the social world… the category of hegemony… politics is an act of power, force and will” [3]. Consequently, the discourse of politics has the same characteristics.
According to critical discourse analysis (CDA) [4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11 and others] there is mutual influence between politics and discourse: the latter can form and change the former, as well as contribute to changes in the situation in the world. Political communication is always ideological, it involves certain instruments to persuade the audience and manipulate it. Irony is regarded as one of such instruments and a feature of the English communicative style [12], which performs different functions in political discourse. It creates emotional background [13; 14], reflects cultural and communicative values [15; 16; 17] and helps the speaker to create maximum effect.
In order to compare and find common trends and differences in the national ironic discourses it is possible to single out several scenarios, such as: mockery or attack; self-defense; entertaining the interlocutor and the audience; optimizing interpersonal communication etc. In analyzing the role and functions of irony in political discourse in the frame of national mentality, I rely on the hypothesis that these notions are integral elements in the English style of communication [1]. The roles, irony performs in discourse, are variable – from mocking to soothing, as well as entertaining or making a statement. The role of self-irony is most important, as it serves to discharge tension and save the face of the speaker. Irony may also express solidarity and minimize the distance between interlocutors, as well as enhance the distance and exclude outsiders, serving as a boundary marker.
In any case, the use of irony and the function it performs in discourse reflect national, cultural and communicative values.


3. Cultural and communicative values

In order to understand irony it is important to take into consideration a number of social factors, such as the type of relationship between interlocutors, their gender, cultural and ethnical identity. It is also important to have a background knowledge about the norms of using humour and irony in this or that culture, to be aware of what is considered to be funny. The situation, in which irony is used, should be appropriate and correspond to the mood of the communicants and to the atmosphere. It was already mentioned, that an ironic speech act is a product of cooperation, so all the parties should contribute equally. The understanding of irony can differ not only interculturally, but within one and the same culture. Individual characteristics of a person are also important.
So, a great number of factors should be taken into consideration in order to interpret an ironic utterance. If the estimation of the situation is incorrect, the communicative act is bound to be a failure.
Communicative style that is typical of a certain culture is based on cultural and communicative values and traditions, as well as on the picture of the world, that every individual has in mind. It is reflected in verbal and non-verbal means used in the process of interaction.
The issue of communicative values is one of the crucial ones for understanding people’s mentality. Being individualistic cultures (unlike Russian, collectivist culture), the British and the Americans have some common communicative values. Nevertheless, there are a number of differences, which are reflected in the language, in particular, in the peculiarities of irony usage.
Among the most important communicative values researchers single out individualism (privacy), pragmatism, competition, equality, common sense, positive thinking, tolerance etc. [14; 15; 17; 18]. The priority is held by privacy and equality [18]. American cultural values include practically the same notions, with assertiveness opening the list of priorities (which means “pursue one’s own best interests without denying a partner’s rights” [16, p. 402]), followed by self-confidence and confidence in future. The list of communicative values also includes competition, personal success, independence and aggression [19]. The famous American slogans – “go and get it”, “just do it” – vividly reflect the view on the world and on the role of an individual. The Americans think as positively as the British do, and value equality as well, but they are less modest and, as opposed to the British, unlikely to diminish their personal achievements. While the British tend to use understatement speaking about personal success, the Americans would rather exaggerate it, attracting the attention of the interlocutor / audience to oneself.
Even non-verbal communication has got certain peculiarities in the two cultures: while the British prefer a polite smile, performing the social function of putting other people at their ease, the Americans are famous for a broad self-confident smile, demonstrating good teeth (hence: good dentist, well-being, stability and prosperity).
Linguistic means chosen in the process of communication serve a definite purpose. For the British it is saving face and preserving privacy, which is clearly seen in the strategies of negative politeness [20]. Irony is one of the means realizing this strategy. American irony is more explicit and aggressive, more straight-forward and less disguised, which will be illustrated by the examples below.


4. Irony as a characteristics of national communicative style

Since irony is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a way of perceiving the world, understanding national humour and irony is crucial for fruitful intercultural communication [2]. The identification of irony and its correct interpretation ensure comfortable atmosphere and optimizes interpersonal relations between interlocutors. Irony creates emotional background and divides the listeners into target audience and victims: “irony has an evaluative edge and manages to provoke emotional responses in those who “get” it and those who don’t, as well as in its targets and in what some people call its “victims” [12, p.2]. Despite the fact that irony is inherent for many world languages and cultures, it is a characteristic feature for but a few.
Irony in the British culture is a way of national self-identification, it is a clue to understanding cultural and historic aspect. The British rely on irony and, being devoid of the opportunity to use it (at the funeral, for example) feel helpless [1]. The same cannot be applied to the American communicative culture.


5. The role of irony in political discourse

The language of politics reflects the existing reality, changes together with it and contributes to its formation. Political discourse highlights the peculiarities of social and cultural development. Each turn in political life of a country gives rise to creating new language symbols, such as metaphors and other expressive means [21].
Irony, used in political discourse, makes the recipient re-consider cultural values, leads to active thinking while interpreting it. When used skillfully, irony is an efficient tool to persuade and manipulate, it disguises meanings, accentuates certain features and forms public opinion and taste. In ironic discourse it is very important to take into consideration the personalities of the author and the recipient. The type of irony is directly connected with the level of education of the speaker, his/her social status, political views. It holds true about the recipient as well: it is necessary to take into account his/her character and mood, the degree of intimacy between the interlocutors. The role of emotional and psychological factors is also important [13]. Ignoring any of the prerequisites may lead to misunderstanding and communicative failure. That is why irony is a subtle device, demanding skill and experience especially in political discourse, where misunderstanding might cause major problem.
Irony and politics have much in common. Both are manipulations (irony is the one in language, politics is manipulating public opinion). They both pursue certain aims (irony strives to convey the communicative intention of the author, i.e. to create the necessary effect, while politics is aimed at gaining and withholding power). Further, ironic and political discourse have much in common in terms of functions. The common strategy of dividing into “us” and “them” also unifies irony and politics. So, analyzing irony in political discourse poses great challenges from linguistic, cultural and social point of view.


6. Examples and commentary

The connection of communicative values and irony, its functions and mechanisms, can be analyzed through examples of discourse of modern politicians.
In (1) Boris Johnson, the ex-Mayor of London and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, prevents the possible criticism:
(1) It’s absolutely wonderful to be here in Manchester – one of the few great British cities I have yet to insult [22].
The politician, who is known for his brutal remarks, often comes under criticism, which he is well aware of. Johnson openly admits the fact and uses irony as a preventive measure. In this utterance the speaker puts on an ironic mask of a rude person, a misbehavior, who does not hesitate to offend others. Here Johnson follows the principle “better admit, than deny”, which helps to stop the possible bitter remarks from opponents. He uses self-irony, that is so typical of the British culture.

In the interview with David Letterman (2), a well-known showman and journalist, Johnson again relies on irony while answering the question about his chances to be Prime Minister. This is an interesting example of intercultural communication, since the interviewer is an American, and the interviewee comes from Britain. For the British, it is rather embarrassing to speak about ambitious plans, possible promotion, career etc. Unlike Americans, the British are not assertive, tend to underestimate their achievements and find boasting and showing off impermissible.

(2) Letterman. Is there a possibility of being Prime Minister?
Johnson. I think that is vanishing. I have a much better chance of being reincarnated. [23].

The situation seems funny, especially now, when Boris Johnson has become Prime Minister and is rather successful in his job. But the phrase was pronounced some years before he took over power, and it was still unclear if he will win the elections. For American culture it might sound quite natural to express belief in one’s own success, while the British speaker is likely to diminish his chances and use self-irony.
The irony is based on paradox and allows the speaker to save face and avoid discussing the unpleasant and embarrassing subject.

The mockery at political opponents is ironically disguised and demands background knowledge for its interpretation. A vivid illustration of this situation is demonstrated in B. Johnson’s speech (3), when he suddenly refers to his opponent.

(3) Insert joke here, as Jeremy Corbyn would say [24].
The ironic sense of this utterance will be clear only to an addressee, familiar with J. Corbyn’s discourse. Bearing in mind the usual official tone of the Labour party’s leader’s speeches and his inability to joke, the recipient can realize the ironic hint of Boris Johnson. The implicit irony points to the absence of the sense of humour (or the reluctance to use irony and humour in his speeches), and the opponent becomes a laughing stock. The function of irony here is mockery and attack.

One of the most articulate British rhetors, David Cameron, uses irony rather skillfully, here (4) in the function of defense.

(4) If you saw me in these pictures of me on the beach this summer in Cornwall you know one thing: I’ve got the stomach for the fight. [25].
D. Cameron uses ironic word play using the collocation “to have stomach” in two senses: direct meaning – “being plump” and figurative meaning – “having power and intention for the fight”. Again, we deal with the famous British self-irony, which helps to save the face and avoid direct showing off. On the one hand, the leader points out to his own good qualities, such as being resolute, strong and determined, on the other hand he speaks about the drawbacks of his appearance. This combination of the two meanings produces a humorous effect and takes the edge off the categorical remarks.

Irony in the function of attack and mockery is often used in American political discourse to criticize the opponents. The best examples of ironic exchanges can be found in pre-election discourse, where, according to the style, the speakers have to be critical and aggressive towards one another.
(5) You know I’ve got to talk about Trump. He lacks experience to be president but in fairness he spent years meeting with leaders throughout the world: Miss Sweden, Miss Argentina, Miss Azerbaijan… [26].
In (5) B. Obama accentuates the background information about D. Trump, namely his organizing beauty contests and love affairs with the contestants. It is clear to the public, that the “experience” has nothing to do with politics. So, assessing Trump as a possible candidate for presidency, Obama points out his inability to become the leader of the country due to low moral standards. The irony is disguised, but quite clear to those who remember the events and scandals around Trump and his love affairs.

In his turn, D. Trump uses bitter irony speaking about H. Clinton. He is a skillful speaker, when it comes to mocking at his rivals, and uses a lot of bitter irony to accentuate the drawbacks of the opponent.

(6) This is the first time ever, ever, that Hillary is sitting down, speaking to major corporate leaders and not getting paid for it.

(7) You’ll notice Hillary’s not laughing. That’s because she knows the jokes and all the jokes were given to her before the dinner by Donna Brazile.

(8) It is great to be here with a thousand wonderful people or as I call it “a small intimate dinner with some friends” or as Hillary calls it “her largest crowd of the season” [27].

In (6), (7) and (8) irony is quite explicit: Trump accuses Clinton of corruption and lacking sense of humour. In (8) Clinton is opposed to the speaker himself, having very few people to support her, while Trump’s supporters, according to his statement, are numerous. In all the utterances irony is based on ambiguity: there is some additional meaning hidden behind each statement. The speaker uses ironic metaphors (her largest crowd of the season, a small intimate dinner with some friends), ironic paradox (speaking and not getting paid for it), ambiguous irony (she knows the jokes and all the jokes were given to her before).All these various means create a certain atmosphere – mocking, teasing, attacking.

Jeb Bush, another candidate in the American presidential race – 2016 is assertive and self-confident:

(9) I will be a Commander-in-Chief to get back in the business of creating a more peaceful world… Please clap! [28].
The call to applaud seems too self-assured, but the irony corresponds to American communicative values. On the one hand, the final appeal to the public may be considered as the evidence of the candidate’s assertiveness and vision to the future, which is certain to be successful for him. On the other hand, the remark can be a way to hide embarrassment and discharge tension, which may have appeared in the end of the speech, when nobody reacts. So the ironic mask of a boastful person helps Jeb Bush to save the face and overcome the inconvenient pause. In this way, irony serves a double purpose: it optimizes the atmosphere of discourse and ensures the creation of a proper image of the speaker – charismatic and self-confident.


7. Discussion

These are but a few examples of contemporary political discourse, which can be viewed as bright examples of British and American political discourse. The whole material for the research counts around 100 speeches of 20 political and cultural figures from Great Britain and the USA within the period 2009-2019. The analysis of the speeches proves the hypothesis – irony has national and cultural peculiarities, which have an impact on the functions and mechanisms of ironic utterances and are closely connected with communicative values.
It should be noted, that the comparison of the speeches of British and American political and cultural figures reflected differences as well as common points. The study poses challenges for further discussion and opens vast perspectives for development.


8. Conclusions

The analyzed material proves that there are several common scenarios, which make the use of irony highly desirable in both English and American discourse. It conveys mockery and criticism, defend the speaker and protect his/her privacy, enhance intimacy between the speaker and the addressee/the audience, amuse and entertain.
The functions of irony and the frequency of its usage depend on the communicative values and the picture of the world, which form national mentality.
Communicative values are reflected in the language and influence the choice of strategies and expressive means. Irony is one of the instruments which is aimed at reaching the communicative intention of the author and performs a number of functions.
Irony has certain peculiarities in British and American political discourse. The research showed that in American political discourse in most cases it conveys criticism, attack, mockery, diminishes the opponent and portrays the speaker himself in a favourable way. British politicians use irony mainly for self-defense, to prevent criticism or close the unpleasant topic. Irony in the British discourse rather optimizes communication than raises contradictions.
Understanding irony used by a speaker requires background knowledge not only of national culture and traditions, but also about the speaker as a personality, including his education, social status, profession etc.
The effect of irony in political discourse depends on both parties – the author and the audience and is presupposed by a number of factors, such as cultural, national peculiarities, individual characteristics, background information, social level etc. Irony is a useful device, contributing to the success of communication, in case it is used appropriately and skillfully and interpreted correctly.
Analyzing humour and irony as a reflection of national character poses vast challenges for further research in the field of intercultural communication. The results of these studies can be used in teaching foreign languages and cultures, training interpreters and in the theory of discourse.

9. References
[1] Fox, K., Watching the English. The hidden rules of English behavior, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 2005.
[2] A. Soussa, A. Bazenga, L. Antunes , “Crosscultural humour: Humour that divides, humour that unites. An introduction”, Journal of Linguistics and Intercultural Education, Vol. 2/2009 No.2, University of Madeira, Editura Aeternitas Alba Julia, 2009, pp. 9-11.
[3] Critchley, S., Ethics, Politics and racial Democracy: a History of a Disagreement, Culture Machine, vol. 4, 2002.
[4] M. Billig “Critical Discourse Analysis and the Rhetoric of Critique”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 35-47.
[5] Fairclough, N., Language and power, Longman, 1996.
[6] A.M. Gouveia Carlos “Critical Discourse Analysis and the Development of the New Science”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 47-63.
[7] P. Graham , “Critical Discourse Analysis and Evaluative Meaning: Interdisciplinarity as a Critical Turn “, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 110-130.
[8] J. Lemke, “Texts and Discourses in the Technologies of Social Organization”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp.130-150.
[9] S. Scollon, “Political and Somatic Alignment: Habitus, Ideology and Social Practice”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 167-199.
[10] Van Dijk, T. A., Society and discourse: how social contexts influence text and talk, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
[11] R. Wodak, “Critical Discourse Analysis”, Discourse as Social Interaction, Vol. 2. – London: Sage Publications, 1997, pp. 259-284.
[12] Hutcheon, L. Irony’s Edge. The Theory and Politics of Irony, New York: Routledge, 2005.
[13] F. Yus ,”Attaching Feelings and Emotions to Propositions. Some Insights on Irony and Internet Communication”, Russian Journal of Linguistics, 22 (1), pp. 94—107.
[14] Jandt, F., An introduction to intercultural communication. Identities in a global community, 4th edition, Sage publications, 2004.
[15] Wierzbicka, A,. English: Meaning and Culture, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
[16] Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J., Redmond, M.V., Interpersonal communication: relating to others. Pearson Education, Inc.. 2007.
[17] Paxman, J, The English: A Portrait of a People. Penguin Books, 1999.
[18[ T. Larina , “Culture-Specific Communicative Styles as a Framework for Interpreting Linguistic and Cultural Idiosyncrasies”, International Review of Pragmatics, 7 (2015), pp. 195–215.
[19[ DeVito, J.A. The Interpersonal Communication Book, 9th ed., Adison Wesley Longman, Inc., 2001.
[20] Brown, P., Levinson, S. D. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
[21] A. Chudinov , O. Solopova , “Linguistic political prognostics: models and scenarios of future “, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 200, 2015, pp. 412-417.

[22] https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2017/11/13/boris-johnsons-4-best-quotes/.

[23] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Woy_rUyphOY – тYouTube. Mayor of London Boris Johnson on David Letterman. 25.02.2014.

[24] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1n7b8iTbqw – YouTube. Boris Johnson’s rugby scrum joke – BBC News, 6.10.2015.

[25] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdtzjLsaQSI – YouTube. 2013 Tory party conference. PM David Cameron keynote speech, 02.10.2013.

[26] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZZzw1QTy1w – YouTube. Obama’s best 2016 jokes at the White House Correspondents’ Dinner, 25.04.2015.

[27] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yGgxr4Sxoas – YouTube. Al Smith dinner, 20.10.2016.

[28] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdCYMvaUcrA – YouTube. Jeb Bush: “Please Clap…”, 3.02.2016.

10. Acknowledgements

I express my gratitude to the organizing committee of Ireland International Conference on Education (IICE-2019) for giving an opportunity to present the report and discuss the suggested hypothesis with colleagues.

For citation: А. Gornostaeva. Irony and Communicative Values in Political Discourse: Intercultural and Interpersonal Communication // International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 10, Issue 4, ISSN 2042 6364 (Online), http://infonomics-society.org/ijcdse/

Understanding Irony through Communicative Values in the Time of Globalization

Anna Gornostaeva
Moscow State Linguistic University, Russia

Abstract

In the time of globalization and developing intercultural communication it is necessary not only to master a foreign language but to acquire cultural and communicative skills. Irony, as a communicative value of certain cultures is the centre of attention of this paper. It is noted that irony is an integral part of the English communicative culture [1] and understanding irony and humour in a foreign language ensures a fruitful dialogue between cultures [2]. The aim of the study is to determine the links between cultural and communicative values and mechanisms of irony in the British and American culture and to find common trends in irony usage. The hypothesis is: irony is a reflection of culture and forms the picture of the world of a nation; it is used to express and strengthen the national identity. The knowledge of ironic mechanisms is important to promote understanding between different cultures. The material, used for the analysis, is represented by the recent speeches of British and American political and cultural figures.
.

1. Introduction

Recently the attention of researchers has been attracted to political communication, its mechanisms and language means. These phenomena are analyzed from different angles and through various approaches, including political, cultural and linguistic ones. The central figures in political communication are the participants and the strategies of persuasion and manipulation. The aim of political discourse is gaining and holding power, the instrument to achieve this aim is language. One of the expressive means is irony, whose functions range from attack and mockery to self-defense and entertainment and rely on communicative context, background and the type of relations between the interlocutors. The use and frequency of irony depends on cultural and communicative values of the speakers.

2. Methodology

Political discourse is currently interpreted as a social phenomenon, while politics is associated with power and force: “Politics is the realm of the decision, of action in the social world… the category of hegemony… politics is an act of power, force and will” [3]. Consequently, the discourse of politics has the same characteristics.
According to critical discourse analysis (CDA) [4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11 and others] there is mutual influence between politics and discourse: the latter can form and change the former, as well as contribute to changes in the situation in the world. Political communication is always ideological, it involves certain instruments to persuade the audience and manipulate it. Irony is regarded as one of such instruments and a feature of the English communicative style [12], which performs different functions in political discourse. It creates emotional background [13; 14], reflects cultural and communicative values [15; 16; 17] and helps the speaker to create maximum effect.

3. Cultural and communicative values

Communicative style that is typical of a certain culture is based on cultural and communicative values and traditions. It is reflected in verbal and non-verbal means used in the process of interaction.
The issue of communicative values is one of the crucial ones for understanding people’s mentality. Being individualistic cultures (unlike Russian, collectivist culture), the British and the Americans have some common communicative values. Nevertheless, there are a number of differences, which are reflected in the language, in particular, in the peculiarities of irony usage.
Among the most important communicative values researches single out individualism (privacy), pragmatism, competition, equality, common sense, positive thinking, tolerance etc. [14; 15; 17; 18]. The priority is held by privacy and equality [18]. American cultural values include practically the same notions, with assertiveness opening the list of priorities (which means “pursue one’s own best interests without denying a partner’s rights” [16, p. 402]), followed by self-confidence and confidence in future. The list of communicative values also includes competition, personal success, independence and aggression [19]. The famous American slogans – “go and get it”, “just do it” – vividly reflect the view on the world and on the role of an individual. The Americans think as positively as the British do, and value equality as well, but they are less modest and, as opposed to the British, unlikely to diminish their personal achievements. While the British tend to use understatement speaking about personal success, the Americans would rather exaggerate it, attracting the attention of the interlocutor / audience to oneself.
Even non-verbal communication has got certain peculiarities in the two cultures: while the British prefer a polite smile, performing the social function of putting other people at their ease, the Americans are famous for a broad self-confident smile, demonstrating good teeth (hence: good dentist, well-being, stability and prosperity).
Linguistic means chosen in the process of communication serve a definite purpose. For the British it is saving face and preserving privacy, which is clearly seen in the strategies of negative politeness [20]. Irony is one of the means realizing this strategy. American irony is more explicit and aggressive and less disguised, which will be illustrated by the examples below.

4. Irony as a characteristics of national communicative style

Since irony is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a way of perceiving the world, understanding national humour and irony is crucial for fruitful intercultural communication [2]. The identification of irony and its correct interpretation ensure comfortable atmosphere and optimizes interpersonal relations between interlocutors. Irony creates emotional background and divides the listeners into target audience and victims: “irony has an evaluative edge and manages to provoke emotional responses in those who “get” it and those who don’t, as well as in its targets and in what some people call its “victims” [12, p.2]. Despite the fact that irony is inherent for many world languages and cultures, it is a characteristic feature for but a few.
Irony in the British culture is a way of national self-identification, it is a clue to understanding cultural and historic aspect. The British rely on irony and, being devoid of the opportunity to use it (at the funeral, for example) feel helpless [1]. The same cannot be applied to the American communicative culture.

5. The role of irony in political discourse
The language of politics reflects the existing reality, changes together with it and contributes to its formation. Political discourse highlights the peculiarities of social and cultural development. Each turn in political life of a country gives rise to creating new language symbols, such as metaphors and other expressive means [21].
Irony, used in political discourse, makes the recipient re-consider cultural values, leads to active thinking while interpreting it. When used skillfully, irony is an efficient tool to persuade and manipulate, it disguises meanings, accentuates certain features and forms public opinion and taste. In ironic discourse it is very important to take into consideration the personalities of the author and the recipient. The type of irony is directly connected with the level of education of the speaker, his/her social status, political views. It holds true about the recipient as well: it is necessary to take into account his/her character and mood, the degree of intimacy between the interlocutors. The role of emotional and psychological factors is also important [13]. Ignoring any of the prerequisites may lead to misunderstanding and communicative failure. That is why irony is a subtle device, demanding skill and experience especially in political discourse, where misunderstanding might cause major problem.
Irony and politics have much in common. Both are manipulations (irony is the one in language, politics is manipulating public opinion). They both pursue certain aims (irony strives to convey the communicative intention of the author, i.e. to create the necessary effect, while politics is aimed at gaining and withholding power). Further, ironic and political discourse have much in common in terms of functions. The common strategy of dividing into “us” and “them” also unifies irony and politics. So, analyzing irony in political discourse poses great challenges from linguistic, cultural and social point of view.

6. Examples and commentary

The connection of communicative values and irony, its functions and mechanisms, can be analyzed through examples of discourse of modern politicians.
In (1) Boris Johnson, the ex-Mayor of London and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, prevents the possible criticism:
(1) It’s absolutely wonderful to be here in Manchester – one of the few great British cities I have yet to insult [22].
The politician, who is known for his brutal remarks, often comes under criticism, which he is well aware of. Johnson openly admits the fact and uses irony as a preventive measure.
In the interview with David Letterman (2), a well-known showman and journalist, Johnson again relies on irony while answering the question about his chances to be Prime Minister.
(2) Letterman. Is there a possibility of being Prime Minister?
Johnson. I think that is vanishing. I have a much better chance of being reincarnated. [23].
The irony is based on paradox and allows the speaker to save face and avoid discussing the unpleasant subject.
The mockery at political opponents is ironically disguised and demands background knowledge for its interpretation.
(3) Insert joke here, as Jeremy Corbyn would say [24].
The ironic sense of this utterance will be clear only to an addressee, familiar with J. Corbyn’s discourse. Bearing in mind the usual official tone of the Labour party’s leader’s speeches and his inability to joke, the recipient can realize the ironic hint of Boris Johnson.
One of the most articulate British rhetors, David Cameron, uses irony rather skillfully, here in the function of defense.
(4) If you saw me in these pictures of me on the beach this summer in Cornwall you know one thing: I’ve got the stomach for the fight. [25].
D. Cameron uses ironic word play using the collocation “to have stomach” in two senses: direct meaning – “being plump” and figurative meaning – “having power and intention for the fight”.
Irony in the function of attack and mockery is often used in American political discourse to criticize the opponents.
(5) You know I’ve got to talk about Trump. He lacks experience to be president but in fairness he spent years meeting with leaders throughout the world: Miss Sweden, Miss Argentina, Miss Azerbaijan… [26].
In (5) B. Obama accentuates the background information about D. Trump, namely his organizing beauty contests and love affairs with the contestants. It is clear to the public, that the “experience” has nothing to do with politics.
In his turn, D. Trump uses bitter irony speaking about H. Clinton.
(6) This is the first time ever, ever, that Hillary is sitting down, speaking to major corporate leaders and not getting paid for it.
(7) You’ll notice Hillary’s not laughing. That’s because she knows the jokes and all the jokes were given to her before the dinner by Donna Brazile.
(8) It is great to be here with a thousand wonderful people or as I call it “a small intimate dinner with some friends” or as Hillary calls it “her largest crowd of the season” [27].
In (6), (7) and (8) irony is quite explicit: Trump accuses Clinton of corruption and lacking sense of humour. In (8) Clinton is opposed to the speaker himself, having very few people to support her, while Trump’s supporters, according to his statement, are numerous.
Jeb Bush, another candidate in the American presidential race – 2016 is assertive and self-confident:
(9) I will be a Commander-in-Chief to get back in the business of creating a more peaceful world… Please clap! [28].
The call to applaud seems too self-assured, but the irony corresponds to American communicative values.

7. Discussion

These are but a few examples of contemporary political discourse, which can be viewed as bright examples of British and American political discourse. The whole material for the research counts around 100 speeches of 20 political and cultural figures from Great Britain and the USA within the period 2009-2019. The analysis of the speeches proves the hypothesis – irony has national and cultural peculiarities, which have an impact on the functions and mechanisms of ironic utterances and are closely connected with communicative values.

8. Conclusions

The cultures of Great Britain and the USA are individualistic and share such communicative values as equality, positive thinking, pragmatism, competition. Nevertheless for the British culture priority is represented by the concept of privacy, while for the Americans most important is assertiveness and confidence.
Communicative values are reflected in the language and influence the choice of strategies and expressive means. Irony is one of the instruments which is aimed at reaching the communicative intention of the author and performs a number of functions.
Irony has certain peculiarities in British and American political discourse. The research showed that in American political discourse in most cases it conveys criticism, attack, mockery, diminishes the opponent and portrays the speaker himself in a favourable way. British politicians use irony mainly for self-defense, to prevent criticism or close the unpleasant topic. Irony in the British discourse rather optimizes communication than raises contradictions.
The effect of irony in political discourse depends on both parties – the author and the audience and is presupposed by a number of factors, such as cultural, national peculiarities, individual characteristics, background information, social level etc. Irony is a useful device, contributing to the success of communication, in case it is used appropriately and skillfully and interpreted correctly.

9. References
[1] Fox, K., Watching the English. The hidden rules of English behavior, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 2005.
[2] A. Soussa, A. Bazenga, L. Antunes , “Crosscultural humour: Humour that divides, humour that unites. An introduction”, Journal of Linguistics and Intercultural Education, Vol. 2/2009 No.2, University of Madeira, Editura Aeternitas Alba Julia, 2009, pp. 9-11.
[3] Critchley, S., Ethics, Politics and racial Democracy: a History of a Disagreement, Culture Machine, vol. 4, 2002.
[4] M. Billig “Critical Discourse Analysis and the Rhetoric of Critique”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 35-47.
[5] Fairclough, N., Language and power, Longman, 1996.
[6] A.M. Gouveia Carlos “Critical Discourse Analysis and the Development of the New Science”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 47-63.
[7] P. Graham , “Critical Discourse Analysis and Evaluative Meaning: Interdisciplinarity as a Critical Turn “, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 110-130.
[8] J. Lemke, “Texts and Discourses in the Technologies of Social Organization”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp.130-150.
[9] S. Scollon, “Political and Somatic Alignment: Habitus, Ideology and Social Practice”, Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 167-199.
[10] Van Dijk, T. A., Society and discourse: how social contexts influence text and talk, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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[22] https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2017/11/13/boris-johnsons-4-best-quotes/.

[23] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Woy_rUyphOY – тYouTube. Mayor of London Boris Johnson on David Letterman. 25.02.2014.

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For citation: A. Gornostaeva. Understanding Irony through Communicative Values in the Time of Globalization. Proceedings: Ireland International Conference on Education, Dun Laoghaire, October 22-24, 2019. Published by Infonomics Society, UK and ROI. P.25-28. DOI: 10.2053/IICE.2019.0039. https://www.iicedu.org/iice-proceedings/

English Irony and Word Play through Drama: New Approach to Mastering Discourse

English Irony and Word Play through Drama: New Approach to Mastering Discourse


Anna Gornostaeva Vera Beliaeva
Moscow State Linguistic University Russian State Humanitarian University

Abstract

The English culture and communicative style are closely connected with irony, while the English language is rich in metaphors, homonyms and homophones, ironic comparisons and ironic word play. It has been noted, that, being an integral part of communication, irony is vital for the English as a way to perceive reality and an instrument to create discourse [1, 2]. Yet, the question of teaching irony and other expressive means is still open. The current study is dedicated to teaching English as a foreign language to students of intermediate level, focusing on lexis and phraseology, namely such expressive means as irony and word play. The suggested method is based on analyzing pieces of English drama, concentrating on interesting linguistic phenomena, which means studying irony and word play as textual categories. The next step involves staging performances, which includes using these phenomena as categories of discourse. The combination of the two approaches ensures a good effect in education. The paper gives a detailed description of the method and its advantages.
Key words. irony, word play, drama, performance, teaching, discourse, culture.

1. Introduction

Modern world and development of new technologies pose great challenges for teachers as well as students. There is a great many methods and trends in teaching foreign languages being introduced into practice both for children and grownups; still, there is no universal recipe suitable for any kind of target audience. We are facing the situation where a need of involving pupils in the communicative process is urgent. By achieving it, the learners could deeply immerse in the process of communication. One of the means to reach this aim is combining traditional teaching practice with elements of theatre play; thus, setting the goal of staging a performance in a foreign language, pupils concentrate on reaching it, simultaneously acquiring lexical and grammar material.
Drama is one of the modern trends in teaching a foreign language. The combination of a foreign language class with theatre appears to be an interesting and exciting approach. The real aim of the process – acquiring linguistic skills – is disguised under a set of tasks, involving studying the screenplay, analyzing and learning the text, playing the role and, finally, staging the performance. While fulfilling these tasks the students are involved in a play, feel more relaxed than at usual classes and have motivation. All these positive factors contribute to creating a friendly inspiring atmosphere and to the final effect.
While playing a certain part, young actors face the necessity to become another personality, acquire the logics and feelings of their character. To do it successfully, it is necessary to find “the grain of the role” [7], which is a number of peculiarities, making it possible for an actor to “live” in the suggested circumstances and, moreover, even beyond the role, in any situation that might occur in real life. Trying to impersonate a certain character, an actor puts on not only a new appearance, but a new mind. Thus, the lines of a play become inherent for a student and help to acquire the language naturally.


2. Methodology

Recently there have emerged new methods on teaching English through drama for both adult students and children [3, 4, 5, 6], which are aimed at developing various language competences, like speaking skills, listening comprehension, the development of grammatical and lexical mastership. This paper is devoted to teaching irony and wordplay to secondary school pupils (pre-intermediate and intermediate level). Since irony is an important integral feature of the British communicative style [1], it is essential to attract the attention of pupils to these expressive means of the language from an early stage of education. Irony is a category of discourse, ironic word play can be found in dialogues. At the same time these phenomena exist in written texts and should be studied as intertextual category. In this view analyzing pieces of drama followed by staging them seems to be an efficient method, which combines text analysis with discourse analysis. The process of performance involves pupils in discourse, at the same time they follow the script and practice certain language means and devices, learn the mechanisms and functions of English irony.
The present method relies on the works of G. Tovstonogov [7], who accentuated the importance of the text for the actors, and his theory of absorbing the lines, penetrating into the implicit meaning. The essence of this method comprises several steps of analyzing the text of a play.
1. It is necessary to single out the most dramatic events in a play and divide the text accordingly into several parts.
2. Distinguish in these events a chain of conflicts (with one’s own self, with other people, with circumstances).
3. Find a concrete action in these conflicts (usually it is represented by an active confrontation).
According to G. Tovstonogov, to denote all these things one should concentrate on the main situation and distinguish the conflict behind emotions. It should be noted, that the conflict is not necessarily straightforward, but can be felt subconsciously, through growing suspense.
The understanding of the conflict is absolutely essential for the correct interpretation of the part. Even if the situation is seemingly calm and peaceful, there must be some growing tension. It manifests itself through action, and the main event in a play is the one that inspires the characters to act.
The method of Tovstonogov relied a great deal on movements: while reciting the lines, it is important to emphasize the meaning not only with appropriate intonation, but also accompany the words by movements, gestures, which correspond to the idea.
The character of a movement should conform to the psychological background of the scene. One and the same movement can be done in different ways – irritably, angrily, complacently, quietly etc. The information about the nature of each gesture is prompted by the text itself and it is up to an actor to penetrate into the hidden sense and interpret it correctly.
The basics of theatre art is based on the system of the great theatre actors and directors, such as K. Stanislavski, V. Meyerhold, and M. Chekhov, which includes exercises for breathing, movements, body language, speech practice. Theatre play requires a lot of preliminary work, such as the art to breathe properly, the art to speak loudly and distinctly, movements and body posture skills. Since the performance is in English, a lot of attention is paid to phonetics (pronunciation and intonation). Before stage playing, a lot of reading aloud takes place, as well as training lexical and grammar constructions.


3. Screenplay

The actors, who are supposed to take part in staging a play, are secondary school children ranging in age from 8 to 12. At this age children are eager to play and are fond of games, but they are adult enough to expect some result to ensue from their activity. If the aim of studying is formulated as “acquiring certain lexical and grammar material”, it is not motivating enough. But, setting a challenging but feasible goal is the best way to make the young learners interested in the process of studying. Moreover, at this age people start feeling the desire to express themselves and identify their personality. From psychological point of view, putting on a mask and impersonating another character is an effective way to set free one’s own self and reveal the suppressed feelings and emotions. In this view, pupils are excited to realize their potential on the stage and at the same time create a final product – the performance, which is to be shown to the audience at the end of the course. The performance itself is a kind of final exam, which can be taken only once, there is no chance to take it again and improve the mark. So it provides additional motivation to the pupils. The teacher, in his/her turn, pursues one more aim, disguised from the pupils, that is to make them master a certain amount of the foreign language and culture: grammar and lexical material, history, communicative values.
The initial step to staging a performance is choosing the suitable plot. It is a crucial task which accounts for the success of the preparatory process and the final result. While choosing the text for the performance, it was necessary to bear in mind the following factors:
1. The authenticity of the text
2. Substantial number of expressive means, used in the text
3. Number of characters, involved in the action
4. The level of difficulty
5. The age of the actors.
Regarding all the conditions, the choice was limited by “The importance of being Earnest” (O. Wilde), “Pigmalion” (B. Shaw) and “Alice in Wonderland” (L. Carrol) [8]. In view of the pupils’ age the latter option was preferred, as a fairy-tale with elements of mysticism is warmly received by children. The text has a substantial amount of language material, based on wordplay, homonyms and homophones, irony etc. This play is a challenge; it has a capturing plot and children feel intrigued and excited to try it, penetrate into the hidden meaning and convey the author’s ideas on the stage.
Genre is an essential point, which cannot be ignored. It represents the way of reflecting reality, the angle, at which the author views the reality. The director must take the genre into account while inserting some additional text and scenes into the original play. According to Tovstonogov, the difference between genres is manifested in the range of “suggested circumstances” [7].
In this context, the director’s task is:
1. To pay attention to other genre-markers, not only the division into poem or prose. The length of the lines must be taken into account.
2. To understand the author’s view on the situation and life in general, the feeling and emotions, which are necessary to convey.
3. To penetrate into the reasons of the characters’ acts and the motives that made the author write the text.
So, the first stage of work consisted of transforming the text into a play and adapting it to the level of the pupils. This process involved omitting several parts of the story, shortening the plot to several scenes and adapting the text, including as many expressive means as possible.
The second stage is presenting the text to the class, reading it aloud, singling out difficult parts, translating and explaining the meaning. According to the method of G. Tovstonogov, each play is a lock, to which the director should find the key [7]. The first reading must take place in a quiet comfortable atmosphere. One must be careful with the first impression, as it might be full of stereotypes and clichés. But Tovstonogov recommends to write down the first impression (e.g. “it is stifling”) and after the performance is ready it is desirable to compare the initial picture with the result. The first impression reflects the novelty of feelings, as well as associations with something already seen or felt. That is why it is not recommended to start working at a part immediately at the stage of the first reading. Some more preparation is required.
Each actor, considering his/her part must ask himself/herself a question: what my character and I have in common? What is the difference between us? These questions will lead to the appearance of intellectual distance, which is inevitable in the process of understanding the role.
After distributing the parts each actor concentrates on his/her words, learning them by heart, pronouncing the text with a proper intonation, receiving a feedback from the partner. It is desirable to change parts several times so that each pupil should fully understand and learn the whole text.
While the lines are pronounced on the stage, the dialogue is accompanied by movements, gestures and mimics, which all contributes to better understanding and memorizing the mechanisms of irony.


4. Preparation and Exercises

The actual work in a team starts with testing the target audience, which takes place in the form of games, questions-and-answers exercises, short role plays etc. The aim of this stage is to denote the level of foreign language knowledge on the one hand and revealing the children’s communicative skills, on the other. The teacher makes acquaintance with the group and the children are involved in communication, which exposes the temperament of the pupils, their abilities to react and their willingness to be engaged in playing. Simultaneously, the preparation period ensures a warm and friendly atmosphere, where people feel free to express their ideas and emotions. Before introducing the text of the chosen play to the class, it is required to go through various short scenarios, which presuppose different situations from real life and are connected with expressing all sorts of emotions, like joy, surprise, amazement, grief, anger etc. Children have a go at conveying genuine emotions, develop communicative skills and reveal their personality This exercise helps them to get prepared for acting on stage and assuming certain roles. At the same time the pupils acquire lexical material which helps them to express themselves: words, phrases, ready-made constructions. Normally it is easily acquired because it is related to real life situations.
Another type of exercises is based on establishing contact with an interlocutor: these include greetings, thanks, requests, apologies etc. This step is very important from the point of building up team spirit and creating mutual understanding among future actors. At the same time, a lot of useful learning is involved in the process which contributes to pupils’ mastering the language and developing interpersonal skills.
Various types of exercises, connected with moving, speaking, interacting, expressing oneself, usually receive a warm welcome from the child audience; they seem like a game, but at the same time they serve a definite aim of preparing actors for a more important and difficult work.
The exercise period may last from several hours to several weeks, depending on the level of the audience. It includes various types of activities and is aimed at warming up the pupils and getting them ready for playing on the stage. When the actors are ready the text of the play is introduced. It should be adapted according to the pupils’ age, interests, abilities and level of language difficulty and comprise a lot of dialogues and conversations.
The work with the screenplay starts from reading the text aloud in parts; everyone should have a chance to impersonate different characters, try different intonation patterns, expressing various meanings. This step is mostly connected with language work, for the text of the play needs deep understanding before being pronounced from the stage. Lexical and grammar material is studied, analyzed and trained. Pupils are asked not only to reproduce lines from the screenplay, but also to think of their own examples in similar situations.
The process of studying the screenplay takes long and may be quite tiresome; the mission of the teacher here is to support interest in his/her pupils and to mix learning with exercises directed to activity and movement.
Another important mission of the teacher (and, simultaneously, the director of the play) is to distribute roles to the actors. Normally, every pupil would like to play the leading part, but there are secondary roles, which have to be covered as well. It is essential to convince the young actors that all the characters deserve equal attention and each part, even if it consists of several lines, contributes to the overall picture. The young actors should create their own understanding of the character they impersonate, see it not as a static figure, but as a living being in the process of formation and development. So, it becomes clear that every role should be acted with force and diligence, to attract the attention of the audience and create the desired effect. It is crucial to take into consideration that all the lines are connected with each other, which means that actors should learn and analyze the whole text, not just their part separately.
After the parts in the play are distributed, theatre rehearsals begin. The culmination – the performance on the stage – is a result of diligent work, cooperation and mutual efforts, which contribute to developing children’s knowledge and skills.


5. Case Study and Commentary

As it was already mentioned, the script of the play is prepared in advance. It should include a considerable amount of lexical, grammatical and cultural material which is recommended for studying. In this paper the attention is paid to expressive means that are widely represented in the chosen play. Here are some examples from the screenplay that are recommended for analyzing.

Situation 1.
Alice and the narrator (L. Carrol) are at picnic, talking to each other. L. Carrol is speaking about his childhood, but Alice is not listening – she is watching a white rabbit calling her. Deep in her thoughts, she is considering a serious question, which determines the beginning of this mysterious story.
Alice: “To go or not to go? To go or not to go?”
This is an allusion to the famous “To be or not to be” – the words of Hamlet, the character of one of the best tragedies of Shakespeare. This phrase, together with some comments of the teacher, gives children some knowledge about one of the most significant authors in the history of theatre and drama. Alice’s question – whether to follow the mysterious way or to stay – may be ironically compared to the idea of Hamlet on the sense of life. In “Alice in Wonderland” the answer to this dramatic question turns out to be a positive one, which gives a start to the exciting plot.

Situation 2.
After eating a piece of magic pie and sipping some magic drink, Alice is getting larger and then smaller. At this moment she is giving a small monologue, wondering at the changes that are happening to her.
Alice: “Curiouser and curiouser!”
In the original there are no exact words like these, here we use deliberate quotation spoofing, which can be regarded as “childish” language. It is reflected in the Russian translation of the book and the phrase is familiar to almost everybody. The aim of such transformation is to make children interested in the text, to make it funny for them. At the same time grammar is trained (degrees of comparison). The teacher should attract the pupils’ attention to different ways of building comparative and superlative degree of adjectives – with the help of suffixes or additional words. Here the norms of grammar are deliberately violated. The ironic message is based on absurdity: the main character is getting more and more entangled in the chain of strange events, and the changes in the grammar of the language are reflecting the absurdity of the situation.

Situation 3.
In the process of all the transformations that are happening to her, Alice comes across a mysterious key. The girl is sure it should lead to further adventure, which acquires the image of a beautiful garden So, she is trying to find the door to this wonderful garden.
Alice: “If there is a key there must be a door.”
Such transformation is similar to a famous quotation “If there is a will there is a way”. The play is full of such remarks, placed in the text to emphasize the difference between our world and the one created by the author. Everything is turned upside down, even expressions like this one.
The idea of concentrating the pupils’ attention on this saying is introducing them to English phraseology, comparing proverbs in the English language and their mother tongue, disclosing the meanings.

Situation 4.
Alice and her friends are soaking wet after swimming in the sea of tears, which Alice had produced while being a giant. They feel cold and do not know how to warm up. The Mouse comes up with an idea: it is going to give a talk that is supposed to make Alice and the animals dry.
The Mouse: “Sit down, all of you, and listen to me! I’LL soon make you dry enough! ‘Ahem!’ Are you all ready? This is the driest thing I know.”
Word play, which is used here, is very typical of the English language, rich in homonyms. The word “dry” means firstly “not wet” and secondly “cool”, and both meanings can be applied in this situation. The interconnection between the literal and the figurative meaning is shown clearly, which gives actors an opportunity to enrich their vocabulary. At the same time it is desirable to concentrate on the ironic effect, which the phrase acquires by combing the two meanings of the word.

Situation 5.
In the same speech of The Mouse there is another detail.
The Mouse: “…Silence! William the Conqueror, whose cause was favoured by the pope…”
This phrase is an example of an unnecessary complicated official language, and that is an extremely important issue in terms of culture and national history: “Alice in Wonderland” was written in Victorian age, when children heard this language at school. Now this style is viewed with a degree of irony, when used in simple conversation.
The purpose is to introduce the learners to the topic of using various styles and the necessity to choose the necessary stylistic register in an appropriate situation.

Situation 6.
In the dialogue between Alice and the Caterpillar some phrases have a double meaning. For example in the phrase “I can’t explain myself, because I’m not myself” the meaning of the collocation “explain oneself” (which means “explain something clearly”) is transformed into literal meaning of both words, taken separately. So the sense is different – “I can’t say anything definite about my identity”.
Here we deal with word play, which creates an additional ironic effect and corresponds to the situation in the story, which is getting more and more confusing.
In this connection it might be useful to point out ambiguity, which is present in the story and created by various expressive means and stylistic devices. Irony is one of the linguistic manipulations that is based on ambiguity.

Situation 7.
Another example of word play, widely used by the characters, is the usage of the word “see”. Alice starts her talk with the words “Well, you see…” and is interrupted. The Caterpillar says “I don’t see”, which has two meanings: to see in literal meaning and in collocation which can be replaced by “I don’t understand”.
Again, the word play contributes to the atmosphere: strange events and ridiculous behaviour of the characters become even more vivid.

Situation 8.
The same phenomenon can be recognized not only in the dialogue between Alice and The Caterpillar, but also in the “tea party”, when Alice, the Madhatter and the Mouse start discussing another character: “He [The Time] won’t stand beating” (beating as “hitting” and as “striking of the clock”). The Time is a living creature, who cannot bear being beaten; on the other hand, time is connected with the clock and counting minutes and hours. Again, we deal with ambiguity and the ironic usage of word meanings.
Another example in the same dialogue is a phrase “They lived on treacle”, taken from a story about animals, who consumed the food that was under their feet (“live on” in literal meaning and “to survive by eating something”). Contrasting the two senses of a word is not only an individual characteristics of the author (Lewis Caroll), but a peculiarity of the English communicative style and one of ironic mechanisms, frequently used in discourse. This is ironic word play, which adds a note of paradox to the sense and provides amusement to the audience.

Situation 9.
Some logical nonsense, typical for the British mentality, can be found in the text of the play: The Madhatter’s watch shows date, not the time; The Queen orders the Madhatter not to be nervous otherwise he’ll be executed (and this threat cannot calm down anybody, but, on the contrary, is sure to make a person even more nervous). These are all paradoxes which create an atmosphere of absurdity and ensure the ironic perception of the play.
At this point it is desirable to discuss the roots, origins and mechanisms of British humour and irony, which are often based on absurdity, contrasting meanings, paradoxes. For the students of the English language it is important to recognize such notions and humour and irony in discourse and know the ways they function and the role they perform in speech.
While reproducing the text, the young actors learn more than only linguistic material – they get acquainted with English cultural and communicative values and the style of communication.


6. Discussion

Staging the play is the most exciting moment in the course of drama, it is a sort of exam which reveals all the acquired knowledge and skills – both artistic and linguistic ones. It should be noted that the exam is not only for young actors but for the teacher as well, while the jury is represented by the audience of spectators. This form of control is more serious than an ordinary language test but the pupils are more enthusiastic about it since they perceive it not as an exam but as a play.
During the performance the children display everything they have learned – the knowledge of the text, the ability to react and interact, artistic skills, creativity etc. The young actors understand that they have only one chance to be at their best and usually make the most of it. The role of the teacher here is to support and encourage, inspire and praise.
A very important part of the drama class is the discussion after the play is over and the teacher estimates the work of every actor. Here a great deal of encouragement and advice is required from the teacher concerning the drama part. As for the language, it is desirable to go through mistakes, made during the play (including phonetics, grammar and lexis) and correct them while the children still remember their performing and are under the impression of just being on the stage in front of the audience.
On the whole, the performance itself is the shortest part of the drama course, but it is the most important one, for it reveals the results and allows to set new goals and tasks.


7. Conclusions

Combining learning a language, drama classes and playing on the stage opens vast perspectives in terms of acquiring knowledge as well as developing personality.
First, pupils set themselves an aim for realizing when they start working as a team. It contributes to their communicative skills. Drama classes combined with teaching a foreign language pose challenges for both students/pupils and teachers and open vast perspectives in terms of developing creativity as well as linguistic skills.
Second, to convey a certain meaning and emotions, young actors feel free to disclose their hidden talents and reveal their personalities, which is very important from psychological point of view.
Third, they master a considerable amount of lexis and grammar. The language material (which corresponds to the age and level of knowledge) is easily absorbed and remembered in the process of role-play. Learning irony and wordplay through staging a performance is an interesting and useful method, which combines different approaches: analyzing irony and ironic wordplay as a text category and viewing them as a discoursive phenomenon.
Finally, the course culminates in creating a certain product – a staged performance, which is a contribution to general education, background and aesthetical well-being. Being involved in a play students/pupils feel more relaxed and absorb information easily. The aim of staging a play makes the actors motivated. This creates a positive approach and inspires students/pupils acquire the language material and skills.


8. References

[1] Fox, K., Watching the English. The hidden rules of English behavior, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 2005.
[2] Hutcheon, L. Irony’s Edge. The Theory and Politics of Irony, New York: Routledge, 2005.
[3] Beliaeva, V., Learning a foreign language through theatre: secondary school experience, Inted 2019 proceedings, [https://library.iated.org/view/BELIAEVA2019LEA], 2019.
[4] Gałązka, A., Drama in education for sustainable development, Inted 2017 proceedings, [https://library.iated.org/view/GALAZKA2017DRA], 2017.
[5] Rooney, C., Coleman, M., Applying lessons from drama and stage in formal communication training: strategies to overcome oral communication apprehension for business students, Inted 2019 proceedings, [https://library.iated.org/view/ROONEY2019APP], 2019.
[6] Yaroslavova, E.,  Shraiber, E., Drama and theatre in foreign language teaching at the University level, Inted 2016 proceedings, [https://library.iated.org/view/YAROSLAVOVA2016DRA], 2016.
[7] Tovstonogov, G., The mirror of the stage, Textbook, Planeta muzyki, 2018. (In Russian).

[8] Carroll L., Alice’s adventures in wonderland, Usborne Publishing, 2015.

9. Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the pupils of secondary school № 1279 of Moscow, Russia, who took part in staging the play “Alice in Wonderland” and proved to be most creative and talented actors.
We thank the organizing committee of Ireland International Conference on Education (IICE-2019) for giving an opportunity to present the report and discuss the suggested approach with colleagues.

For citation: А. Gornostaeva, V. Beliaeva. English Irony and Word Play through Drama: New Approach to Mastering Discourse // Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 10, Issue 4, 2019. ISSN: 2040 https://infonomics-society.org/licej/published-papers/volume-10-2019/2589 (Online), https://infonomics-society.org/licej/